Foods and Raw Materials Foods and Raw Materials Foods and Raw Materials 2308-4057 2310-9599 90111 10.21603/2308-4057-2025-2-644 Research Article Research Article Research Article Lycopene from tomato biomass: Extraction and stabilization Lycopene from tomato biomass: Extraction and stabilization https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7881-6649 Murillo Vazquez Rosa Nallely Murillo Vazquez Rosa Nallely https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3769-5649 Pacheco Moises Fermin Paul Pacheco Moises Fermin Paul https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8065-997X Nardello-Rataj Veronique Nardello-Rataj Veronique https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3120-0243 Carbajal Arizaga Gregorio Guadalupe Carbajal Arizaga Gregorio Guadalupe gregoriocarbajal@yahoo.com.mx University of Guadalajara Guadalajara Мексика University of Guadalajara Guadalajara Mexico University of Guadalajara Guadalajara Мексика University of Guadalajara Guadalajara Mexico University of Lille Lille Франция University of Lille Lille France University of Guadalajara Guadalajara Мексика University of Guadalajara Guadalajara Mexico 01 01 2025 01 01 2025 13 2 330 340 17 10 2023 05 03 2024 https://jfrm.ru/en/issues/22898/22956/

Lycopene and other carotenoids have a significant added value in the food and cosmetic industries due to their nutraceutical properties and antioxidant activity. The extraction and stabilization of these compounds remain challenging due to their sensitivity to light, temperature fluctuations, and oxidation. This article introduces a sustainable method of extracting lycopene from tomato waste (Solanum lycopersicum L.) using layered double hydroxide nanoparticles to stabilize lycopene. We used tomato juice and lycopene as a positive control, while ZnAl was a negative control. The experimental samples included 75 and 100 mg of zinc salt per 1 mL of tomato juice, which were labeled as ZnAl75J and ZnAl100J. Zinc and aluminum salts developed insoluble hydroxides, which precipitated lycopene from tomato juice, thus forming composites. The composites proved to be efficient means of encapsulating lycopene as they recovered 97% lycopene present in tomato juice. The physicochemical properties of the organic material enhanced resistance to thermal degradation and acted as an extended-release antioxidant. ZnAl100J, which contained a lot of lycopene, inhibited 89% of DPPH• in 24 h and showed a value higher than IC50 for ABTS•+, which was 0.02 μg/mL of TEAC ABTS•+. ZnAl75J composites showed a higher protection against oxidation and a higher sun protection factor value (3.08) at 15% concentration. The composites could be used as an active ingredient in a wide range of formulations that require antioxidant and photosensitizing properties, or simply as encapsulators and carriers of lycopene.

Lycopene and other carotenoids have a significant added value in the food and cosmetic industries due to their nutraceutical properties and antioxidant activity. The extraction and stabilization of these compounds remain challenging due to their sensitivity to light, temperature fluctuations, and oxidation. This article introduces a sustainable method of extracting lycopene from tomato waste (Solanum lycopersicum L.) using layered double hydroxide nanoparticles to stabilize lycopene. We used tomato juice and lycopene as a positive control, while ZnAl was a negative control. The experimental samples included 75 and 100 mg of zinc salt per 1 mL of tomato juice, which were labeled as ZnAl75J and ZnAl100J. Zinc and aluminum salts developed insoluble hydroxides, which precipitated lycopene from tomato juice, thus forming composites. The composites proved to be efficient means of encapsulating lycopene as they recovered 97% lycopene present in tomato juice. The physicochemical properties of the organic material enhanced resistance to thermal degradation and acted as an extended-release antioxidant. ZnAl100J, which contained a lot of lycopene, inhibited 89% of DPPH• in 24 h and showed a value higher than IC50 for ABTS•+, which was 0.02 μg/mL of TEAC ABTS•+. ZnAl75J composites showed a higher protection against oxidation and a higher sun protection factor value (3.08) at 15% concentration. The composites could be used as an active ingredient in a wide range of formulations that require antioxidant and photosensitizing properties, or simply as encapsulators and carriers of lycopene.

 Lycopene composites hydroxides zinc salts aluminum salts layered nanoparticles antioxidant activity Lycopene composites hydroxides zinc salts aluminum salts layered nanoparticles antioxidant activity This research was supported by the National Council for Humanities, Sciences, and Technologies (CONAHCYT), México, due to the doctoral scholarship given to Rosa Nallely Murillo Vázquez (CVU number: 486681). This research was supported by the National Council for Humanities, Sciences, and Technologies (CONAHCYT), México, due to the doctoral scholarship given to Rosa Nallely Murillo Vázquez (CVU number: 486681).

Heriyanto S, Romulo A. Tomato pomace ketchup: Physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory characteristics. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(4):766–774. https://doi.org/10.21603/2074-9414-2023-4-2477 Heriyanto S, Romulo A. Tomato pomace ketchup: Physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory characteristics. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(4):766–774. https://doi.org/10.21603/2074-9414-2023-4-2477 Madia VN, de Vita D, Ialongo D, Tudino V, de Leo A, Scipione L, et al. Recent advances in recovery of lycopene from tomato waste: A potent antioxidant with endless benefits. Molecules. 2021;26(15):4495. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26154495 Madia VN, de Vita D, Ialongo D, Tudino V, de Leo A, Scipione L, et al. Recent advances in recovery of lycopene from tomato waste: A potent antioxidant with endless benefits. Molecules. 2021;26(15):4495. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26154495 Méndez-Carmona JY, Ascacio-Valdes JA, Alvarez-Perez OB, Hernández-Almanza AY, Ramírez-Guzman N, Sepúlveda L, et al. Tomato waste as a bioresource for lycopene extraction using emerging technologies. Food Bioscience. 2022;49:101966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2022.101966 Méndez-Carmona JY, Ascacio-Valdes JA, Alvarez-Perez OB, Hernández-Almanza AY, Ramírez-Guzman N, Sepúlveda L, et al. Tomato waste as a bioresource for lycopene extraction using emerging technologies. Food Bioscience. 2022;49:101966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2022.101966 Yasmeen N, Sameer AS, Nissar S. Lycopene. In: Kour J, Nayik GA, editors. Nutraceuticals and health care. Academic Press; 2022. pp. 115–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-89779-2.00009-0 Yasmeen N, Sameer AS, Nissar S. Lycopene. In: Kour J, Nayik GA, editors. Nutraceuticals and health care. Academic Press; 2022. pp. 115–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-89779-2.00009-0 Hernández DE, Magallon AP, Arizaga GGC. Green extraction of lycopene from tomato juice with layered double hydroxide nanoparticles. Micro and Nano Letters. 2019;14(3):230–233. https://doi.org/10.1049/mnl.2018.5437 Hernández DE, Magallon AP, Arizaga GGC. Green extraction of lycopene from tomato juice with layered double hydroxide nanoparticles. Micro and Nano Letters. 2019;14(3):230–233. https://doi.org/10.1049/mnl.2018.5437 Chen Z, Fan Q, Huang M, Cölfen H. Synthesis of two-dimensional layered double hydroxides: A systematic overview. CrystEngComm. 2022;24(26):4639–4655. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2CE00511E Chen Z, Fan Q, Huang M, Cölfen H. Synthesis of two-dimensional layered double hydroxides: A systematic overview. CrystEngComm. 2022;24(26):4639–4655. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2CE00511E Min L, Duan J, Song C, Chen Y, Zhang W, Wang Y. Decarbonating layered double hydroxides using a carbonated salt solution. Dalton Transactions. 2023;52(21):7330–7335. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3DT01079A Min L, Duan J, Song C, Chen Y, Zhang W, Wang Y. Decarbonating layered double hydroxides using a carbonated salt solution. Dalton Transactions. 2023;52(21):7330–7335. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3DT01079A Kesavan Pillai S, Kleyi P, de Beer M, Mudaly P. Layered double hydroxides: An advanced encapsulation and delivery system for cosmetic ingredients – An overview. Applied Clay Science. 2020;199:105868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2020.105868 Kesavan Pillai S, Kleyi P, de Beer M, Mudaly P. Layered double hydroxides: An advanced encapsulation and delivery system for cosmetic ingredients – An overview. Applied Clay Science. 2020;199:105868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2020.105868 Mosangi D, Moyo L, Kesavan Pillai S, Ray SS. Acetyl salicylic acid-ZnAl layered double hydroxide functional nanohybrid for skin care application. RSC Advances. 2016;6(107):105862–105870. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6RA22172F Mosangi D, Moyo L, Kesavan Pillai S, Ray SS. Acetyl salicylic acid-ZnAl layered double hydroxide functional nanohybrid for skin care application. RSC Advances. 2016;6(107):105862–105870. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6RA22172F Cheng H-M, Gao X-W, Zhang K, Wang X-R, Zhou W, Li S-J, et al. A novel antimicrobial composite: ZnAl-hydrotalcite with p-hydroxybenzoic acid intercalation and its possible application as a food packaging material. New Journal of Chemistry. 2019;43(48):19408–19414. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9NJ03943K Cheng H-M, Gao X-W, Zhang K, Wang X-R, Zhou W, Li S-J, et al. A novel antimicrobial composite: ZnAl-hydrotalcite with p-hydroxybenzoic acid intercalation and its possible application as a food packaging material. New Journal of Chemistry. 2019;43(48):19408–19414. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9NJ03943K Egambaram OP, Kesavan Pillai S, Ray SS, Goosen M. Structural and photoprotective characteristics of Zn-Ti, Zn-Al, and Mg-Al layered double hydroxides – A comparative study. Cosmetics. 2023;10(4):100. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics10040100 Egambaram OP, Kesavan Pillai S, Ray SS, Goosen M. Structural and photoprotective characteristics of Zn-Ti, Zn-Al, and Mg-Al layered double hydroxides – A comparative study. Cosmetics. 2023;10(4):100. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics10040100 Szerlauth A, Muráth S, Szilagyi I. Layered double hydroxide-based antioxidant dispersions with high colloidal and functional stability. Soft Matter. 2020;16(46):10518–10527. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0SM01531H Szerlauth A, Muráth S, Szilagyi I. Layered double hydroxide-based antioxidant dispersions with high colloidal and functional stability. Soft Matter. 2020;16(46):10518–10527. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0SM01531H Singh A, Ahmad S, Ahmad A. Green extraction methods and environmental applications of carotenoids – A review. RSC Advances. 2015;5(77):62358–62393. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA10243J Singh A, Ahmad S, Ahmad A. Green extraction methods and environmental applications of carotenoids – A review. RSC Advances. 2015;5(77):62358–62393. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA10243J Ma Y, Zhong L, Peng Z, Liu X, Ouyang D, Guan S. Development of a highly water-soluble lycopene cyclodextrin ternary formulation by the integrated experimental and modeling techniques. AAPS PharmSciTech. 2021;22:5. https://doi.org/10.1208/s12249-020-01861- Ma Y, Zhong L, Peng Z, Liu X, Ouyang D, Guan S. Development of a highly water-soluble lycopene cyclodextrin ternary formulation by the integrated experimental and modeling techniques. AAPS PharmSciTech. 2021;22:5. https://doi.org/10.1208/s12249-020-01861- Aghel N, Ramezani Z, Amirfakhrian S. Isolation and quantification of lycopene from tomato cultivated in Dezfoul, Iran. Jundishapur Journal of Natural Pharmaceutical Products. 2011;6(1):9–15. Aghel N, Ramezani Z, Amirfakhrian S. Isolation and quantification of lycopene from tomato cultivated in Dezfoul, Iran. Jundishapur Journal of Natural Pharmaceutical Products. 2011;6(1):9–15. Benítez JJ, Castillo PM, del Río JC, León-Camacho M, Domínguez E, Heredia A, et al. Valorization of tomato processing by-products: Fatty acid extraction and production of bio-based materials. Materials. 2018;11(11):2211. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11112211 Benítez JJ, Castillo PM, del Río JC, León-Camacho M, Domínguez E, Heredia A, et al. Valorization of tomato processing by-products: Fatty acid extraction and production of bio-based materials. Materials. 2018;11(11):2211. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11112211 Gordeeva A, Hsu Y-J, Jenei IZ, Brant Carvalho PHB, Simak SI, Andersson O, et al. Layered zinc hydroxide dihydrate, Zn5(OH)10·2H2O, from hydrothermal conversion of ε-Zn(OH)2 at gigapascal pressures and its transformation to nanocrystalline ZnO. ACS Omega. 2020;5(28):17617–17627. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c02075 Gordeeva A, Hsu Y-J, Jenei IZ, Brant Carvalho PHB, Simak SI, Andersson O, et al. Layered zinc hydroxide dihydrate, Zn5(OH)10·2H2O, from hydrothermal conversion of ε-Zn(OH)2 at gigapascal pressures and its transformation to nanocrystalline ZnO. ACS Omega. 2020;5(28):17617–17627. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c02075 Bastianini M, Faffa C, Sisani M, Petracci A. Caffeic acid-layered double hydroxide hybrid: A new raw material for cosmetic applications. Cosmetics. 2018;5(3):51. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics5030051 Bastianini M, Faffa C, Sisani M, Petracci A. Caffeic acid-layered double hydroxide hybrid: A new raw material for cosmetic applications. Cosmetics. 2018;5(3):51. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics5030051 Bukhtiyarova MV. A review on effect of synthesis conditions on the formation of layered double hydroxides. Journal of Solid State Chemistry. 2019;269:494–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssc.2018.10.018 Bukhtiyarova MV. A review on effect of synthesis conditions on the formation of layered double hydroxides. Journal of Solid State Chemistry. 2019;269:494–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssc.2018.10.018 Wang T, Jin B, Jiao Z, Lu G, Ye J, Bi Y. Photo-directed growth of Au nanowires on ZnO arrays for enhancing photoelectrochemical performances. Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 2014;2(37):15553–15559. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4TA02960G Wang T, Jin B, Jiao Z, Lu G, Ye J, Bi Y. Photo-directed growth of Au nanowires on ZnO arrays for enhancing photoelectrochemical performances. Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 2014;2(37):15553–15559. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4TA02960G Chen H, Deng H, Zhong X, Zhou H, Zhan J, Zhou X. Highly dispersed amorphous ZnO on a petal-like porous silica-clay composite with enhanced antimicrobial properties. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2022;220:112978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2022.112978 Chen H, Deng H, Zhong X, Zhou H, Zhan J, Zhou X. Highly dispersed amorphous ZnO on a petal-like porous silica-clay composite with enhanced antimicrobial properties. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2022;220:112978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2022.112978 Xiao S, Zhao L, Leng X, Lang X, Lian J. Synthesis of amorphous TiO2 modified ZnO nanorod film with enhanced photocatalytic properties. Applied Surface Science. 2014;299:97–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.01.192 Xiao S, Zhao L, Leng X, Lang X, Lian J. Synthesis of amorphous TiO2 modified ZnO nanorod film with enhanced photocatalytic properties. Applied Surface Science. 2014;299:97–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.01.192 Naumkin AV, Kraut-Vass A, Gaarenstroom SW, Powell CJ. NIST X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy database. Gaithersburg: National Institute of Standards and Technology; 2000. https://doi.org/10.18434/T4T88K Naumkin AV, Kraut-Vass A, Gaarenstroom SW, Powell CJ. NIST X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy database. Gaithersburg: National Institute of Standards and Technology; 2000. https://doi.org/10.18434/T4T88K Rotole JA, Sherwood PMA. Nordstrandite (Al(OH)3) by XPS. Surface Science Spectra. 1998;5:32–38. https://doi.org/10.1116/1.1247854 Rotole JA, Sherwood PMA. Nordstrandite (Al(OH)3) by XPS. Surface Science Spectra. 1998;5:32–38. https://doi.org/10.1116/1.1247854 Pooresmaeil M, Behzadi Nia S, Namazi H. Green encapsulation of LDH(Zn/Al)-5-Fu with carboxymethyl cellulose biopolymer; new nanovehicle for oral colorectal cancer treatment. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2019;139:994–1001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.08.060 Pooresmaeil M, Behzadi Nia S, Namazi H. Green encapsulation of LDH(Zn/Al)-5-Fu with carboxymethyl cellulose biopolymer; new nanovehicle for oral colorectal cancer treatment. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2019;139:994–1001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.08.060 Zhang Y, Chang J, Zhao J, Fang Y. Nanostructural characterization of Al(OH)3 formed during the hydration of calcium sulfoaluminate cement. Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 2018;101(9):4262–4274. https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.15536 Zhang Y, Chang J, Zhao J, Fang Y. Nanostructural characterization of Al(OH)3 formed during the hydration of calcium sulfoaluminate cement. Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 2018;101(9):4262–4274. https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.15536 Guo X, Tang M, Wang N, Li L, Wu Y, Chen X, et al. The synthesis of organically modified layered double hydroxide and its effect on the structure and physical properties of low-density polyethylene/ethylene–vinyl acetate blends. Polymers and Polymer Composites. 2019;27(5):287–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967391119846218 Guo X, Tang M, Wang N, Li L, Wu Y, Chen X, et al. The synthesis of organically modified layered double hydroxide and its effect on the structure and physical properties of low-density polyethylene/ethylene–vinyl acetate blends. Polymers and Polymer Composites. 2019;27(5):287–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967391119846218 Adriany A, Jéssica S, Ana O, Raimunda S, Andreanne V, Luan S, et al. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity improvement of lycopene from guava on nanoemulsifying system. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology. 2021;42(5):760–770. https://doi.org/10.1080/01932691.2020.1728300 Adriany A, Jéssica S, Ana O, Raimunda S, Andreanne V, Luan S, et al. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity improvement of lycopene from guava on nanoemulsifying system. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology. 2021;42(5):760–770. https://doi.org/10.1080/01932691.2020.1728300 Cámara M, de Cortes Sánchez-Mata M, Fernández-Ruiz V, Cámara RM, Manzoor S, Caceres JO. Lycopene: A review of chemical and biological activity related to beneficial health effects. Studies in Natural Products Chemistry. 2013;40:383–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59603-1.00011-4 Cámara M, de Cortes Sánchez-Mata M, Fernández-Ruiz V, Cámara RM, Manzoor S, Caceres JO. Lycopene: A review of chemical and biological activity related to beneficial health effects. Studies in Natural Products Chemistry. 2013;40:383–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59603-1.00011-4 Guerra AS, Hoyos CG, Molina-Ramírez C, Velásquez-Cock J, Vélez L, Gañán P, et al. Extraction and preservation of lycopene: A review of the advancements offered by the value chain of nanotechnology. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2021;116:1120–1140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.09.009 Guerra AS, Hoyos CG, Molina-Ramírez C, Velásquez-Cock J, Vélez L, Gañán P, et al. Extraction and preservation of lycopene: A review of the advancements offered by the value chain of nanotechnology. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2021;116:1120–1140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.09.009 Zhang C, Li C, Zhu Y, Cui H, Lin L. Stability of a novel glycosylated peanut protein isolate delivery system loaded with gallic acid. Food Chemistry. 2024;437:137790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.137790 Zhang C, Li C, Zhu Y, Cui H, Lin L. Stability of a novel glycosylated peanut protein isolate delivery system loaded with gallic acid. Food Chemistry. 2024;437:137790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.137790 Joshi H, Hegde AR, Shetty PK, Gollavilli H, Managuli RS, Kalthur G, et al. Sunscreen creams containing naringenin nanoparticles: Formulation development and in vitro and in vivo evaluations. Photodermatology Photoimmunology and Photomedicine. 2018;34(1):69–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/phpp.12335 Joshi H, Hegde AR, Shetty PK, Gollavilli H, Managuli RS, Kalthur G, et al. Sunscreen creams containing naringenin nanoparticles: Formulation development and in vitro and in vivo evaluations. Photodermatology Photoimmunology and Photomedicine. 2018;34(1):69–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/phpp.12335 Aloanis AA, Karundeng M, Paat VI, Tengker SMT, Siwu O. Sun protecting factor value of the Ficus benjamina Linn. fruits extract. Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2021;1968:012009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1968/1/012009 Aloanis AA, Karundeng M, Paat VI, Tengker SMT, Siwu O. Sun protecting factor value of the Ficus benjamina Linn. fruits extract. Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2021;1968:012009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1968/1/012009 Rohmah J, Wulandari FE, Rini CS. In vitro: Sunscreen activity of red lettuce extract (Lactuca sativa var. crispa L.). IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2020;519:012009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/519/1/012009 Rohmah J, Wulandari FE, Rini CS. In vitro: Sunscreen activity of red lettuce extract (Lactuca sativa var. crispa L.). IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2020;519:012009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/519/1/012009 Fogaça LA, Feuser PE, Ricci-Júnior E, Hermes de Araújo PH, Sayer C, da Costa C. ZnO and quercetin encapsulated nanoparticles for sun protection obtained by miniemulsion polymerization using alternative co-stabilizers. Materials Research Express. 2020;7:015096. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab6c8e Fogaça LA, Feuser PE, Ricci-Júnior E, Hermes de Araújo PH, Sayer C, da Costa C. ZnO and quercetin encapsulated nanoparticles for sun protection obtained by miniemulsion polymerization using alternative co-stabilizers. Materials Research Express. 2020;7:015096. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab6c8e Lademann J, Meinke M, Sterry W, Darvin M. Carotenoids in human skin. Experimental Dermatology. 2011;20:377–382. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0625.2010.01189.x Lademann J, Meinke M, Sterry W, Darvin M. Carotenoids in human skin. Experimental Dermatology. 2011;20:377–382. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0625.2010.01189.x Low LE, Siva SP, Ho YK, Chan ES, Tey BT. Recent advances of characterization techniques for the formation, physical properties and stability of Pickering emulsion. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science. 2020;277:102117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2020.102117 Low LE, Siva SP, Ho YK, Chan ES, Tey BT. Recent advances of characterization techniques for the formation, physical properties and stability of Pickering emulsion. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science. 2020;277:102117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2020.102117